{"id":4323,"date":"2021-07-29T18:42:17","date_gmt":"2021-07-29T16:42:17","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/?p=4323"},"modified":"2025-08-05T16:49:59","modified_gmt":"2025-08-05T14:49:59","slug":"a-fortiori-eng","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/a-fortiori-eng\/","title":{"rendered":"A fortiori, \u201cfor a stronger reason\u201d"},"content":{"rendered":"

A FORTIORI<\/span> argument<\/span><\/span><\/h1>\n

Lat. a fortiori ratione<\/em>, \u201cfor a stronger reason\u201d.<\/span>
\nRatio, <\/em>\u201creason\u201d; fortis<\/em>, \u201cstrong\u201d, fortior<\/em> \u201cstronger\u201d.<\/span><\/p>\n

The argument a fortiori<\/em> applies in two directions:<\/p>\n

(1) \u201cFrom bigger to smaller\u201d<\/strong> <\/span>(Lat. a maiori ad minus<\/em>). This formula allows infer\u00adences from more<\/em> to less<\/em>:<\/p>\n

The hook can hold a load of up to 20kg, so it can support 10kg.<\/span>
\nIf someone is capable of killing someone, then, they are capable of striking someone.<\/span><\/p>\n

Other expressions to the same effect: \u201cfor a stronger reaso;<\/em>, \u201call the more reason to\/for\u201d: \u201cthose who can do hard things can readily do easy ones<\/em>\u201d, etc.<\/p>\n

(2) \u201cFrom smaller to bigger\u201d<\/strong><\/span> (Lat. a minori ad maius<\/em>). This formula rejects inferences from less to more:<\/p>\n

The hook cannot hold a load greater than 20kg, so it certainly cannot support a 30 kg burden.<\/span>
\nIf one has no right to strike, then one has no right to kill.<\/span><\/p>\n

Other expression to the same effect: \u201cstill \/ much \/<\/em> even less<\/em>\u201d, etc.<\/p>\n

This scheme can be specified in a discursive domain, for example as a consolation discourse<\/em>:<\/p>\n

The idea that \u201cdeath should spare young people<\/em>\u201d is more acceptable (more normal) than \u201cdeath should spare the elderly<\/em>\u201d. And you know that many young people have died around you. Therefore, accept death.<\/span><\/p>\n

This form underlies the statement \u201cothers died much younger<\/em>\u201d, which is said to comfort the living for the death of an elderly relative.<\/p>\n

1. A fortiori<\/em>, a Transcultural Topos<\/span>
\n<\/span><\/h2>\n

The a fortiori<\/em> argument scheme is a clear example of a cross-cultural interpretive<\/span><\/a> – argumentative rule.<\/strong><\/p>\n

1.1 Greco-Latin Tradition<\/span><\/h2>\n

In the Greco-Latin tradition all collections of argument schemes throughout the history of Western argumentation mention the a fortiori<\/em> rule. Aristotle illustrates this rule via the following examples:<\/p>\n

If even the gods are not omniscient, then certainly human beings are certainly not. (Rhet<\/em>, II, 23, 1397b15, RR, p. 359)
\n<\/span>A man who strikes his father also strikes his neighbors [\u2026]\u00a0for a man is less likely to strike his father than to strike his neighbors (ibid.<\/em>).<\/span><\/p>\n

The second argument can be used in the following situation. Somebody was assaulted. Who is guilty? We know that someone in the victim\u2019s neighborhood committed violence against his own father. The a fortiori<\/em> argument casts suspicion upon the person who has already committed more severely prohibited forms of violence. The conclusion is that the police should question him.<\/p>\n

1.1 Muslim Legal Argumentation<\/span><\/h2>\n

In Muslim legal argumentation, the bi-l-awla<\/em> argument corresponds exactly to the a fortiori<\/em> argument. The issue is addressed in the Quran (Surah 17, verse 24), dealing with the respect that a child owes to his parents:<\/p>\n

Do not make \u201cpfff!<\/em>\u201d to them!<\/p>\n

The prohibition refers to a minimal impolite retort of a child shrugging off or reluctantly obeying the words of his parents, puffing out a sigh of exaspera\u00adtion. The a fortiori<\/em> principle extends this prohibition to all disrespectful behavior: \u201csince it is forbidden even to say \u201cpfff!\u201d to one\u2019s parents, it is all the more forbid\u00adden to say harsh words to them, bully or hit them<\/em>\u201d.
\nThe prohibition takes its support on the lowest point on the scale, the epsilon of disrespect. Commentators have noted that an a fortiori<\/em> argument can be a form of semantic deduction (Khall\u00e2f [1942], p. 216).<\/p>\n

1.3 Talmudic Exegesis<\/span><\/h2>\n

The rules of Talmudic exegesis<\/strong> have been established by various authors following Hillel (1st<\/sup> century CE). The entry \u201cHermeneutics\u201d in the Encyclop\u00e6dia Juda\u00efca<\/em>, enumerates the thirteen interpretive rules of Rabbi Ishmael.
\nThe first rule is qal va-homer<\/em>, \u201chow much more\u201d, which goes from the \u201cminor\u201d (qal<\/em>) to the \u201cmajor\u201d (homer<\/em>) a fortiori<\/em>. (Jacobs & Derovan 2007, p. 25).<\/p>\n

This rule helps to determine what is lawful and what is not, for example it establishes the conditions under which the Easter sacrifice, Pesach<\/em>, should be offered. The Bible asks that Pesach be offered at Easter. Some actions are forbidden on the Sabbath, so what is one to do when Pesach coincides with the Sabbath? The calculation a fortiori<\/em> gives the answer: the Olat Tamid<\/em> sacrifice (\u201cdaily burnt-offering\u201d [1]<\/a>) is offered daily, including on the Shabbat. Pesach<\/em> is more important than Tamid<\/em> (proof: if one does not respect Tamid<\/em>, one does not incur penalties; if one does not respect Pesach<\/em>, the sanctions are severe). Since not cele\u00adbrating Pesach<\/em> is more serious than not cele\u00adbrating Tamid<\/em>, and Tamid<\/em> is lawful when Easter falls on the day of Shabbat, it is therefore a fortiori<\/em> lawful to sacrifice Pesach<\/em> when Easter falls on Sabbath.
\nThe reasoning can be expressed as a rhetorical syllogism:<\/p>\n

Problem:<\/em> the Pesach sacrifice must be offered on Passover.<\/span>
\nSome actions are forbidden on Shabbat<\/span>
\nQuestion:<\/em> What should we do when Passover coincides with Shabbat?<\/span><\/p>\n

Data:<\/em> We know that 1) the Tamid offering must be celebrated on Shabbat, and 2) Not celebrating Pesach is worse than not celebrating the Tamid offering.<\/span>
\nArgumentation: <\/em>Topos of the opposites on (2)<\/em>: <\/span>
\nCelebrating Pesach is more important than celebrating Tamid.<\/em><\/span>
\nThis, combined with (1), leads to the conclusion:<\/span><\/p>\n

Conclusion:<\/em> Pesach can be celebrated when Easter coincides with Shabbat.<\/span><\/p>\n

1.4 Chinese Tradition [1]<\/span><\/h2>\n

Confucius, The Analects<\/em>.<\/strong> Bk 11, \u00a712. Trans. Robert Eno [3]\n

Ji Lu asked about serving the spirits. The Master said, \u201cWhile you are yet not able to serve men, how could you be able to serve the spirits?\u201d
\n\u201cMay I ask about death?\u201d
\n\u201cWhen you do not yet understand life, how could you understand death?\u201d<\/p>\n

Han Fei Tzu, \u201cPrecautions within the palace\u201d.\u00a0 Trans. Burton Watson [4]\n

Thus, the actor Shih aided Lady Li to bring about the death of Shen-sheng and to set Hsi-ch’i on the throne.1<\/sup> Now, if someone as close to the ruler as his own consort, and as dear to him as his own son, still cannot be trusted, then obviously no one else is to be trusted either.
\n1<\/sup> Lady Li and Hsi-ch’i \u201cforced Shen-sheng to commit suicide in 656 BC\u201d. \u201cHsi-ch’i (\u2026) succeeded to the throne in 651 BC\u201d (Burton Watson’s note to the text)<\/p>\n

A fortiori<\/em> can therefore be considered a good candidate for universality.<\/span><\/p>\n

2. Nature of Gradation<\/span><\/h1>\n

The application of the a fortiori<\/em> rule presupposes both that the related facts fall within a certain category and that they are hierarchically positioned within this category. This gradation may follow very different principles:<\/p>\n

\u2014 Objective gradation: \u201cHe can hardly go from his bed to the window, and you would like to take him shopping downtown?<\/em>\u201d<\/span>
\n\u2014 Socio-semantic gradation: \u201cEven grandparents sometimes make big mistakes, so their grandchildren…<\/em>\u201d<\/span>
\n\u2014 Gradation based on the authority of the sacred book: \u201cThe Pesach sacrifice is more important than the Tamid sacrifice<\/em>\u201d.<\/span><\/p>\n

When there is a consensus on the gradation, ratified by the dictionary, the argumen\u00adtative<\/em> or interpretive<\/em><\/a> deductions is purely semantic, s. definition<\/a>.<\/p>\n

In the \u201cArgumentation within Language\u201d theory (Ducrot 1973) the concept of a graduated<\/em> category is represented as an argumentative scale<\/a>; the a fortiori<\/em> rule is an argumentative operator on such scales.<\/p>\n

3. A fortiori<\/em> in Paragon Scales<\/span><\/h1>\n

Some of these scales are topped by an ultimate individual, the paragon<\/em>, the most excellent specimen of the category. The absolute degree of category is estab\u00adlished in terms of comparability with the paragon: \u201csly as a fox<\/em>\u201d. These paragon scales are effective in rejecting a complaint: \u201cYou say that what happens to you is unjust. That\u2019s true. But consider that Christ is the Innocent one par excellence. Now, you are not Christ, and Christ accepted an unjust death. You must therefore accept this injustice<\/em>.\u201d<\/p>\n

An episode of the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). Paco, a somewhat turbulent villager, turns himself in after the war, at the request of Mos\u00e9n Mill\u00e1n, a priest. Mos\u00e9n Mill\u00e1n as\u00adsures him that he will be convicted but his life will be saved. Paco surren\u00adders, and now he and his companions are to be shot.
\n<\/em>\u2014 Why do you want to kill me? What did I do? We didn’t kill anyone! Tell them I’ve done nothing wrong. You know very well that I’m innocent, that we’re all innocent.<\/em>
\n\u2014Yes, my son. You are all innocent. But what can I do?<\/em>
\n\u2014\u00a0They want to kill me because I fought back at Pardinas; OK, but the other two did nothing wrong<\/em>.
\nPedro clung to the cassock of Mos\u00e9n Mill\u00e1n, and repeated: \u201cThey did nothing, and they are going to kill them. They did nothing.\u201d Moved to tears, Mos\u00e9n Mil\u00adl\u00e1n said to him:
\n\u2014 Sometimes, my son, God allows the death of an innocent. He allowed it for his own son, who was more innocent than the three of you.<\/em>
\nUpon hearing these words, Paco was paralyzed and speechless. The priest said noth\u00ading either.
\nRam\u00f3n J. Sender [Requiem for a Spanish Peasant]<\/em> [1953][4]<\/a><\/p>\n

\n

[1]<\/a> After https:\/\/www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org\/tamid<\/a> (11-08-2017)<\/span><\/p>\n[2] \u00ab\u00a0An infinitely rich and varied textual record attests [that] argumentation, persuasion and contention were key elements in a wide array of activities central to the concerns of state and society in China throughout its history.\u201d
\nMartin Hofmann, Joachim Kurtz, and Ari Daniel Levine, 2020. Toward a History of Argumentative\u00a0 Practice in Late Imperial China.<\/em> In Hofmann, M. Kurz J. Levine A.D. (Eds). Powerful Arguments: Standards of Validity in Late Imperial China<\/em>. Brill, Leiden.<\/p>\n[3] Confucius, The Analects<\/em>. An Online Teaching Translation.\u00a0 R. Eno 2015 (Version 2.21) http:\/\/www.indiana.edu\/~p374\/Analects_of_Confucius_(Eno-2015).pdf<\/a><\/p>\n[3] Han Fei Tzu. Basic Writings<\/em>. Section 17, \u201cPrecautions within the Palace\u201d. Translated by Burton Watson. New York, London, Columbia University Press, 1964. P. 84-85.<\/p>\n

[4]<\/a> Ram\u00f3n J. Sender [1953] = (1981). Requiem por un Campesino Espa\u00f1ol<\/em>. Barcelona: \u200b\u200bDestinolibro, 7th ed. Pp. 100-101.<\/p>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

A FORTIORI argument Lat. a fortiori ratione, \u201cfor a stronger reason\u201d. Ratio, \u201creason\u201d; fortis, \u201cstrong\u201d, fortior \u201cstronger\u201d. The argument a fortiori applies in two directions: (1) \u201cFrom bigger to smaller\u201d (Lat. a maiori ad minus). This formula allows infer\u00adences from more to less: The hook can hold a load of up to 20kg, so it […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"open","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-4323","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-non-classe"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/4323","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=4323"}],"version-history":[{"count":42,"href":"https:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/4323\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":14642,"href":"https:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/4323\/revisions\/14642"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=4323"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=4323"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=4323"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}