{"id":5123,"date":"2021-10-21T14:34:08","date_gmt":"2021-10-21T12:34:08","guid":{"rendered":"http:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/?p=5123"},"modified":"2025-06-10T18:43:26","modified_gmt":"2025-06-10T16:43:26","slug":"manipulation-e","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/manipulation-e\/","title":{"rendered":"Manipulation"},"content":{"rendered":"

MANIPULATION<\/span><\/h2>\n

1. Words and domains<\/span><\/h2>\n

The transitive verb to manipulate<\/em>, as in \u00ab\u00a0No<\/strong> manipulates<\/em> N1″<\/strong><\/span> works within two structures:<\/p>\n

Manipulate1<\/sub><\/em><\/strong>: N1<\/strong> refers to a non-human, inanimate object, <\/em>such as acontainer\u00a0<\/em>or a body part, <\/em>such as spinal manipulation.<\/em><\/span><\/p>\n

Manipulate2<\/sub><\/em><\/strong>: N1<\/strong> refers to a person as a synthesis of representations and capable of self-determination. Manipulating2<\/sub><\/em> is exploitative; manipulating people<\/em> is using them as objects or instruments.<\/span><\/p>\n

To manipulate<\/em> is the head of a rich and homogeneous family of derivative words including manipulation, manipulator, (non-)manipulative, outmanipulate2<\/sub>, \u201c<\/em>to outdo or surpass in manipulating2<\/sub><\/em>\u201d (MW, Outmanipulate<\/em>).<\/p>\n

Manipulation<\/em>2<\/sub> can affect all areas of human activity:<\/p>\n

\u2014 Political, ideological and religious spheres.<\/span>
\n\u2014 Everyday psychology: a manipulator<\/em>, manipulative behavior<\/em>.<\/span>
\n\u2014 The military domain: White<\/em> propaganda has a domestic source and targets domestic public opinion; it can be misleading the public. Black<\/em> propaganda has a hidden source and purpose. It appears to come from a well-meaning and harmless source, but actually it comes from an evil or hostile one.<\/span>
\n\u2014 Commercial action and marketing techniques are used to encourage or manipulate people to buy one product over another or nothing at all. These techniques are used to \u00ab\u00a0bait and hook\u00a0\u00bb customers, see gradualism<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n

In these different areas, manipulative influence may overlap, combine or contradict argumentative persuasion.<\/p>\n

2. Acting Together<\/em>: From Cooperation to Manipulation<\/span><\/h1>\n

Manipulation is a resource that can be activated when a person M<\/strong> is pursuing a goal \u03c6<\/strong>. To achieve this goal, M<\/strong> and needs a contribution from another person, N,<\/strong> to achieve this goal.<\/p>\n

2.1 Overt Goal Negotiation<\/span><\/h2>\n

(i) M believes that \u03c6 is in the interest of N’s interest, and N agrees<\/em><\/span><\/h3>\n

N<\/strong> has a positive representation of \u03c6.<\/strong> He considers \u03c6<\/strong> to be important, pleasant and in his interest; N<\/strong> pursues \u03c6<\/strong> spontaneously and independently. Thus, M<\/strong> and N<\/strong> need each other, and they cooperate\u00a0to achieve \u03c6<\/strong>.<\/p>\n

If N’<\/strong>s commitment is less immediate, M<\/strong> will take a more open approach and try to persuade N<\/strong> to work with her in order to achieve \u03c6<\/strong>. N<\/strong> knows that M<\/strong> intends to make N<\/strong> do \u03c6<\/strong>, and they will talk about it.<\/p>\n

(ii) Doing \u03c6 is not really in <\/em><\/span>N’s<\/em> interest<\/em><\/span><\/h3>\n

N<\/strong> doesn’t care about \u03c6<\/strong>. He will not spontaneously cooperate with M<\/strong> in order to achieve \u03c6<\/strong>. M<\/strong> can then act on N<\/strong>‘s will or mental representations.<\/p>\n

(a) Acting on the will to do<\/em><\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

In this situation, M<\/strong> can try to persuade N<\/strong> to do \u03c6<\/strong>. M <\/strong>can threatens N<\/strong> (ad baculum<\/em>), try to blackmail or bribe N <\/strong>(ad crumenam<\/em>), tru to move N<\/strong> to pity (ad misericordiam<\/em>), try to charm or seduce N<\/strong> (ad amicitiam<\/em>), see threat<\/a>; emotion<\/a>.<\/span><\/p>\n

N<\/strong> still has a negative view of \u03c6<\/strong>, but M’<\/strong>s arguments, if they are arguments at all, have changed N’<\/strong>s willingness to act, and she will eventually agree to act in favor of \u03c6<\/strong> even if she does not like it. N<\/strong>\u00a0reluctantly performs\u00a0\u03c6<\/strong> as a favor to M, <\/strong><\/em>raising the question whether N<\/strong> has been manipulated.<\/span><\/p>\n

(b) Action on representations of the action to be taken<\/em><\/strong><\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

M<\/strong> can reframe \u03c6<\/strong> so that it appears to be pleasant or favorable to N <\/strong>and in her best interest. As in case (i), N<\/strong> agrees to do \u03c6<\/strong> because it seems beneficial.,\u00a0<\/span><\/p>\n

In case (a), N<\/strong> will do a dangerous job, because it pays well. In case (b), N<\/strong> will do a dangerous job, or one that he thinks is dangerous, s. M<\/strong> can combine the two strategies. \u201cYou can do it for me, it’s not that dangerous<\/em>\u201d. These two situations are not necessarily manipulative. M<\/strong> has openly presented the goal \u03c6 <\/strong>to N<\/strong>; N<\/strong> has been persuaded to do \u03c6<\/strong> for arguably good reasons; the work may not actually be all that dangerous, and it pays well.<\/span><\/p>\n

M<\/strong> acts manipulatively only if she knows that the work is<\/em> dangerous, but knowingly misrepresents it, by concealing the danger from N<\/strong>; lying is the basis of manipulation.<\/span><\/span><\/p>\n

(iii) Doing \u03c6 goes against N’s interests and values<\/strong><\/span><\/h3>\n

Now, \u03c6<\/strong> is clearly against the interests of N<\/strong>. Under normal circumstances, N<\/strong> would automatically oppose M<\/strong> in her attitude toward \u03c6<\/strong>. Nevertheless, M<\/strong> can still persuade N <\/strong>to do \u03c6<\/strong> deliberately.<\/p>\n

\u2014 To persuade N<\/strong> to deliberately do something contrary to his interests or values. For example, in an extreme case N<\/strong> could be persuaded to commit suicide or to sacrifice herself, even though she does not want to die, in the name of a higher interest or value,:\u201cGod, the Party, the Nation, ask you to\u2026<\/em>\u201d; \u201cYou must sacrifice your children to make our cause prevail.<\/em>\u201d<\/p>\n

\u2014 To convince N<\/strong> that the action he is being asked to take is in his best interest. For example, M<\/strong> might urge N<\/strong> to sacrifice herself even if N <\/strong>is doesn’t want to die, saying, \u201cYou will go to Heaven<\/em>\u201d. The discourse and arguments used by M<\/strong> to persuade N<\/strong> to agree to \u03c6<\/strong> are manipulative because they do not respect a hierarchy of values that is considered natural. On the basis of highly questionable arguments, N<\/strong> has been induced to do something that no human being would reasonably commit. This is a case of brainwashing.<\/p>\n

2.2 Covert Purpose<\/span><\/h2>\n

In the above cases, N<\/strong> is more or less aware of what she is committing to do. Deep manipulation<\/em>, on the other hand, is characterized by M<\/strong> hiding her true intentions or the true nature of the goal \u03c6<\/strong>, which is in fact unacceptable to N. M<\/strong> will use a secondary goal, as a decoy (\u03c6d<\/sub>):<\/p>\n

(i) \u03c6<\/strong>d<\/sub><\/strong> is positive for N<\/strong>: N<\/strong> is made to believe that it is in his best interest to perform\u00a0\u03c6d<\/sub><\/strong><\/span>
\n(ii) \u03c6<\/strong>d<\/sub><\/strong> fatally leads to \u03c6<\/strong> <\/span>
\n(iii) N<\/strong> ignores (2)<\/span>
\n(iv) N<\/strong> achieves \u03c6<\/strong>d<\/sub><\/strong> and M<\/strong> pockets the bet.<\/span><\/p>\n

There is not necessarily any verbal exchange, or even contact between M<\/strong> and N<\/strong> during this process. N<\/strong> may be harmed, and may or may not realize that she has been manipulated. N<\/strong> may lose the game without knowing that he was playing a game.
\nAn example could be that of a salesman\u00a0 who sells a large encyclopedia to consumers who are hardly aware that they have bought anything, who can hardly read, who have no use for that kind of book, and who, in any case, cannot afford to pay the bill. The salesman succeeded in framing the sales interaction<\/em>, \u03c6<\/strong>, as an ordinary,<\/em> friendly conversation,<\/em> \u03c6decoy<\/sub><\/strong> with no financial implications.<\/p>\n

3. \u201cPious lies\u201d<\/span><\/h1>\n

In the past, children refused to take the cod liver oil they needed for their health because it tasted awful. Parents tried to mask the taste by adding sweeteners. Their’ intentions were good, but they had to hide the fact that it was always the same disgusting cod liver oil. \u00ab\u00a0He who wills the end will have the means\u00a0\u00bb<\/span><\/p>\n

Calvin attributes to monks who wanted to save people by any means necessary, because the end justifies the means<\/em>. The following excerpt deals with the multiplication of the relics of the True Cross:<\/p>\n

What other conclusion can be drawn from these considerations but that all these were inventions for deceiving silly folks? Some monks and priests, who call them pious frauds\u2013that is honest deceits for exciting the devotion of the people, have even confessed as much.<\/span>
\nJohn Calvin, A Treatise on Relics<\/em>, [1543][1]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

The concept and practice of \u201cpatriotic fraud\u201d in elections could be seen as a modern version of the practices that Calvin attributes to medieval monks.<\/p>\n

4. Manipulation and power practices<\/span><\/h1>\n

The status accorded to manipulation is based on notions of power and action. Should power be exercised through reason and valid argument, or, in a Machiavellian perspective, does it necessarily require the use of violence and lies, as seen from a Machiavellian perspective?<\/p>\n

I must confess that the so-called cultured circles of Western Europe and America are incapable of understanding the real balance of power. These people must be considered deaf and dumb.<\/span>
\nTelling the truth is a petty-bourgeois prejudice, while lying is often justified by the intended outcome. (Lenin, quoted in V. Volkoff, [Disinformation, A Weapon of War<\/em>], 1986[2]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

Discussing the vital need to keep secret the place and time of the Normandy landings, Churchill said:<\/p>\n

\u201cIn wartime<\/em>\u201d, I said, \u201ctruth is so precious that it should always be attended by a bodyguard of lies<\/em>\u201d.
\nChurchill was discussing of Operation Overlord with Stalin at the Tehran Conference, November 30, 1943 [3]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

The answer to the previous question could be:<\/p>\n

[The] truth is incontrovertible. Panic may resent it, ignorance may deride it, and malice may distort it, but there it is.<\/span>
\nWinston Churchill, Speech in the House of Commons, May 17, 1916[4]<\/a><\/span><\/p>\n

5. Argumentation and manipulation<\/span><\/h1>\n

5.1 Argumentation and Propaganda<\/span><\/h2>\n

The study of discursive schematization<\/a> is the study of the processes by which the speaker arranges a synthetic, coherent and stable meaning. This constructed meaning is neither a manipulation2<\/sub><\/em>, not reality itself, nor an illusion of reality, but rather a significant view of reality. In order to communicate, the speaker must necessarily manipulate1 <\/sub><\/em>the discursive material, but this process is not necessarily intended to manipulate2<\/sub> <\/em>the interlocutor. Manipulation2<\/sub><\/em> presupposes deliberate falsehood. Assuming that all speech is manipulative would over-dramatize the process of signification.<\/p>\n

A very thin thread separates the study of argumentation as defined by the Treatise on Argumentation<\/em> from that of political propaganda, as defined by Domenach. For Perelman & Olbrechts-Tyteca, \u201cthe object of the study of argumentation is the study of the discursive techniques allowing us to induce or to increase the mind’s adherence to the theses presented for its assent<\/em>.\u201d ([1958]\/1969, p. 4; italics in the original). Domenach defines the object of propaganda as \u201cthe creation, transformation or confirmation of opinions\u201d through multisemiotic processes, such as images, music, demonstrations and mass mobilization)\u00a0\u00bb (Domenach 1950, p. 8).
\nThis difference may be that between ratio-propaganda and senso-propaganda as defined by Tchakhotine (1939, p. 152). The former is effective \u201cby persuasion, by reasoning\u201d, and the latter by \u201csuggestion\u201d (ibid<\/em>.), that is, indirectly, by manipulation2<\/sub><\/em>.<\/p>\n

5.2\u00a0Manipulation and lying<\/span><\/h3>\n

Lies and hidden intentions<\/strong> decisively contrast argumentation with manipulation; a lie can be an active lie, asserting a known falsehood, or a passive lie, failing to tell the whole truth, or relevant parts of it. Manipulative discourse relies on lies<\/em>, which may be presented as \u201calternative facts.\u201d Confusing hints, false cues and misleading perspectives are presented as truths. Spin doctors know how to mix some true<\/em> information with false<\/em> information to make the whole believable.
\nDenouncing manipulative discourse means denouncing lies. However, there is no formal way revealing errors and lies. Exposing lies requires a substantial knowledge of the subject. For this reason, as Hamblin says, \u201c[the logician] is not a judge or court of appeal: and there is no such judge or court\u201d<\/strong><\/span> (1970, p. 244). However, as a responsible citizen, she must denounce manipulation and act in favor of a better-informed picture of reality, see Evaluation<\/a>.<\/p>\n

\n

[1]<\/a> John Calvin, A Treatise on Relics<\/em>. Trans. and intro. by Valerian Krasinski. 2nd<\/sup> ed. Edimburg: Johnstone, Hunter & Co, 1870. Quoted from http:\/\/www.gutenberg.org\/files\/32136\/32136-pdf.pdf<\/a> (08-17-2017)
\n<\/span>[2]<\/a> Vladimir Volkoff, La d\u00e9sinformation, arme de guerre.<\/em> [<\/em><\/span>Disinformation, a weapon of war]. <\/em>Lausanne: L’\u00c2ge d’Homme, 1986, p. 35.
\n<\/strong><\/span>[3]<\/a> In The Second World War<\/em>, Volume V: Closing the Ring<\/em> (1952), Chapter 21 (Tehran: The Crux), p. 338.
\n<\/span>[4]<\/a> Quoted from https:\/\/en.wikiquote.org\/wiki\/Winston_Churchill<\/span><\/p>\n

\n

 <\/p>\n","protected":false},"excerpt":{"rendered":"

MANIPULATION 1. Words and domains The transitive verb to manipulate, as in \u00ab\u00a0No manipulates N1″ works within two structures: Manipulate1: N1 refers to a non-human, inanimate object, such as acontainer\u00a0or a body part, such as spinal manipulation. Manipulate2: N1 refers to a person as a synthesis of representations and capable of self-determination. Manipulating2 is exploitative; […]<\/p>\n","protected":false},"author":2,"featured_media":0,"comment_status":"closed","ping_status":"closed","sticky":false,"template":"","format":"standard","meta":{"footnotes":""},"categories":[1],"tags":[],"class_list":["post-5123","post","type-post","status-publish","format-standard","hentry","category-non-classe"],"_links":{"self":[{"href":"https:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/5123","targetHints":{"allow":["GET"]}}],"collection":[{"href":"https:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts"}],"about":[{"href":"https:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/types\/post"}],"author":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/users\/2"}],"replies":[{"embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/comments?post=5123"}],"version-history":[{"count":14,"href":"https:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/5123\/revisions"}],"predecessor-version":[{"id":14350,"href":"https:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/posts\/5123\/revisions\/14350"}],"wp:attachment":[{"href":"https:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/media?parent=5123"}],"wp:term":[{"taxonomy":"category","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/categories?post=5123"},{"taxonomy":"post_tag","embeddable":true,"href":"https:\/\/icar.cnrs.fr\/dicoplantin\/wp-json\/wp\/v2\/tags?post=5123"}],"curies":[{"name":"wp","href":"https:\/\/api.w.org\/{rel}","templated":true}]}}