TOPOS IN SEMANTIC
In Ducrot and Anscombre’s theory of the argumentation in language, the topoi (sg. topos) are defined as general gradual principles, that relate predicates, and are “presented [by the speaker] as accepted by the group” (Ducrot 1988, p. 103; Anscombre 1995a). The word topos (pl. topoi) will be used to refer to this specific concept as distinct from classical argumentation schemes.
Topoi are pairs of predicates (indicated by capital letters). The factor (+) or (–) indicates that these predicates are gradual.
| + A, + P “more… more” | “The higher you go on the P scale, the higher you go on the Q scale”, (Ducrot 1988, p. 106): Topos: “(+) democratic regime, (+) happy citizens” Argumentation: “Syldavia is a democratic regime, SO its citizens should be happy” |
| – B, – Q “less… less…” | “the more you go down the P scale, the more you go down the Q scale”: Topos: “(–) working time, (–) stress” Argumentation: “But now you only work half time, SO you should be less stressed” |
| + C, – R “more… less” | More we have P, less we have Q: Topos: “(+) money, (–) real friends” Argumentation: “He is rich, SO he has many friends (topos “+M, +F”), BUT not so many real friends” (topos “+M, –F”). |
| – D, + S “less… more” |
The less you do P, the more you are Q: Topos: “(–) sports, (+) heart problems” Argumentation: “He stopped doing sports, AND (SO) now he has heart problems”. |
This kind of linking between predicates was also observed by Perelman & Olbrechts-Tyteca in their discussion of values ([1958], pp. 115-128).
All predicates are gradual. For example, in a Syldavian subculture, the following topos might structure a conversation about “being a real man” (M) and “drinking BeverageB”, (B); this relation is expressed by the topos “(+)M, (+)B”; advertisers claim that “real men drink BeverageB”; the more of BeverageB you drink, the more of a “real man” you are.
The same predicate can be associated by the four topical forms, for example in the following argumentations.
(+) money (–) luck: “he is a rich financier, so he has many fears and sleeps badly”
(–) money (+) happiness: “money can’t buy happiness”;
“the poor cobbler sings all the day”[1].
(–) money, (–) happiness: “lack of money is terrible”
(+) money, (+) happiness: “money buys everything”.
In the case of sports and health:
(+) sports, (–) health: “champions die young”
(–) sports (+) health: “to stay healthy, refrain from sport” (Churchill, “no sport”).
(–) sports, (–) health: “when I stop exercising, I feel bad”
(+) sports, (+) health: “if you exercise, you will feel better”.
In such cases, the predicates are linked by four different topoi <+/- S, +/- H>; nevertheless, communities have preferences, in this case for the two last.
These topoi are the exact linguistic expression of the “active associative nodes for ideas” mentioned by Ong (1958, p. 122); see collections (I). They express the possible linguistic associations between “having money” and “being happy”, between “living a healthy life” and “exercising”. To summarize, in Syldavia, the current talk about money and happiness prefers the (–, –) association, while current talk about sport and a healthy life prefers the (+, +) association.
Such associations will emerge in the discourse as reasonable and convincing inferences. In ordinary discourse a complex causal elaboration such as “some/all plant protection products are the/a cause the disappearance of bees” boils down in ordinary syldavian talk to an accepted, doxical association “(+)PPP, (-)bees”.
These expressions are semantic inferences, and are pseudo-reasoning insofar as they say nothing about reality; discourse is an inference machine, an argumentative machine; language can and does speak. This vision justifies the skepticism of the theory of argumentation in language about ordinary argumentation as a form of reasoning, see critique. Reasoning emerges from ordinary talk only under certain conditions; there might be a big step between debating and learning (Buty & Plantin 2009).
[1] According to La Fontaine, “The Cobbler and the Financier”, Fables, Book VIII, Fable 2.