ORIENTATION
The concept of orientation (argumentative orientation, oriented statement or expression), combined with the correlative concept of argumentative scale (Ducrot 1972), is fundamental to the theory of Argumentation within Language (sometimes referred to as Awl theory) developed by Oswald Ducrot and Jean-Claude Anscombre since the 1970s (Anscombre, Ducrot 1983, Ducrot 1988, Anscombre 1995a, 1995b, etc.). In this entry, the word discourse will refer exclusively to (polyphonic) monologue, not to dialog or interaction.
The following equivalences may be helpful in grasping the general concept of meaning as argument, i.e, orientation of a statement E1 toward a subsequent statement E2, that has the status of a conclusion:
He said E1. What does that mean?
He says E1 from the perspective of E2
The reason for saying E1 is E2
The meaning of E1 is E2
E1, that is to say E2
1. But and the grammar of orientation
The stimulating case of the conjunction but, has played a central role in the construction of a grammar for argumentation. The privileged construction chosen to analyze this conjunction is schematized by “E1 but E2”:
The restaurant is good, but expensive.
The basic observations are as follows: E1 and E2 are true (the restaurant is good and expensive); but refers to an opposition; this opposition is not between the predicates “to be good’ and “to be expensive”: one knows that “everything good is expensive”, and tends to think that all expensive restaurants are necessarily good. The opposition is between the conclusions drawn from E1 and E2, which function as arguments: if the restaurant is good, then, let’s eat there; if it’s expensive, let’s go to somewhere else; and the final decision is the latter.
The conjunction but here articulates two statements that lead to contradictory conclusions, and the conclusion derived from the second argument is retained.
Under such an analysis, the meaning of but is to give an instruction to the hearer: connectives provide guidance for the interpretation of the utterances they articulate. They give the receiver the instruction to infer, to reconstruct from the left context E1 a proposition C in opposition to something, not-C, that can be inferred from the context to the right of E2 (following E2). It is up to the listener to reconstruct an argumentative opposition.
In the context of dialogical argumentation, these “instructors” themselves fall within the scope of an argumentative question, and condition the reconstruction of the conclusions derived from E1 and E2. The previous but comes under a question like “Why not try this restaurant?”. If the question were “Which restaurant should we buy to make the best investment?”, the interpretation would be completely different: “This restaurant is good (= “delivers outstanding financial performance”) but is expensive (to buy)” the inferred, implicit conclusion would be “so, let’s invest our money somewhere else”. The argumentative question that structures the text creates the field of relevance and provides the interpretive constraints.
This question and the corresponding conclusions-answers are said to be “implicit” only in so far as the data supporting the analysis of but are generally limited to a pair of statements. The analyst may legitimately posit that her intuition can provide a plausible context. However, to the extent that argument analysis is seen as a discursive-cognitive matter, rather than a linguistic-semantic matter, this authentic context can facilitate the task and introduce new questions.
2. Linguistic constraints on the {argument, conclusion} sequence
Like the classical approaches, the Awl theory considers argumentation essentially as a combination of statements “argument + conclusion”. The crucial difference lies in the concept of the link that authorizes the “step” from argument to conclusion, i.e., the argument scheme. The coherence of the discourse is attributed to a semantic principle, a « topos » which is defined as a purely semantic link that connects the predicate of the argument to the predicate of the conclusion.
Ducrot defines “the argumentative value of a word” as “the orientation that this word gives to the discourse” (Ducrot 1988, p. 51). The linguistic meaning of the word smart is to be sought in the orientation it gives to a statement, namely, the constraints it imposes on the subsequent discourse, not in its descriptive value of a capacity measured by the intellectual quotient of the person concerned. For example:
1. Peter is smart, he will solve this problem
is opposed to the chain perceived as incoherent:
1′. * Peter is smart, he will not be able to solve this problem.
Argumentation (1) is indeed convincing, because its conclusion, “solving problems” belongs to the set of predicates semantically correlated with “being smart”. A set of pre-established conclusions is already given in the semantic definition of the predicate of the statement used as an argument. In other words, the problem is not cognitive but entirely linguistic (lexical). The dictionary is the « place » to look for argument.
The two argumentative morphemes, little / a little give opposite argumentative orientations to the statement they modify, S. Orienting words:
he has taken a little food, he is getting better
he has taken little food, he is getting worse.
Building on such intuitions, Ducrot defines the argumentative orientation of a statement (or its argumentative value) as “the set of possibilities or impossibilities of discursive continuation determined by its use” (ibid.).
The argumentative orientation of a statement S1 is defined as the selection operated by this statement among the class of statements S2 that can follow it in a grammatically well-formed discourse. Theoretically, a first statement S1 can be followed by any other statement S2, both being independent linguistic units. According to the Awl theory, the use of the first statement S1 introduces constraints that impose certain properties on the second statement S2; that is, it excludes some continuations and favors others.
The linguistic constraints that the argument imposes upon the conclusion are particularly visible in quasi-analytical sequences, such as “this proposition is absurd, so it must be rejected”. By the very meaning of the words, to say that a proposition is absurd, is to say that it must be rejected. This apparent conclusion is a pseudo-conclusion, for it merely expresses the definiens of the word absurd, “which should not exist” as the dictionary testifies:
A.- [Speaking of a manifestation of human activity: speech, judgment, belief, behavior, action] That which is manifestly and immediately felt to be contrary to reason in common sense. Sometimes almost synonymous with the impossible in the sense of “that which cannot or should not exist”. (TLFi, [Absurd]).
In a formula as famous as it is objectionable, Roland Barthes wrote that “language is neither reactionary nor progressive; language is quite simply fascist; for fascism does not prevent speech, it compels speech” ([1977], p. 366). Barthe’s perspective is certainly different from Ducrot’s. Nevertheless, in Ducrot’s perspective, the argument literally compels the conclusion. Playing with words, one might say that the inference is compulsive: this is common argumentative experience, in ordinary language, hearing the argument is enough to guess the conclusion.
Ducrot’s theory is based on the linguistic observation that every state statement, regardless of its informational content, specifies its possible continuations and excludes others. Not just any statement can follow any other statement, not just for informational reasons, but also for semantic and grammatical reasons. There are semantic constraints on the construction of discourse.
At the sentence level, this idea is expressed in the purely syntactic language of the restriction of selection (linguistic constraints on the kind of well-formed expression (E2, conclusion) that can follow a given well-formed expression (E1).
In its non-metaphorical use, the statement “Pluto barks” assumes that Pluto is a dog. Taken literally, barking carries with it a selection restriction of that determines the class of entities it admits as subject.
Similarly, on the level of discourse, E1 operates a selection on the class of the statements E2 that can follow it. An argumentation is a pair of statements (E1, E2), such that E2, called the conclusion, respects the orientation conditions imposed by E1, called the argument.
3. Meaning as intention
The AwL theory rejects the notions of meaning as adequacy to reality, whether logical (theories of truth conditions) or analogical (theories of prototypes). It is based on a quasi-spatial conception of meaning as sense, direction: what the statement S1 (as well as the speaker publicly) means, in a given context, is the conclusion S2 to which this statement is directed. The art of argumentation here is the art of managing the transitions of discourse.
The relation “argument S1 – conclusion S2” is reinterpreted in a language production perspective (French perspective énonciative) where the meaning of the argument statement is contained in and revealed by the next statement. Understanding what is meant by the statement “Nice weather today!” doesn’t involve developing a corresponding mental image or cognitive scheme, but accessing the intentions expressed by the speaker, possibly “let’s go to the beach”. This is perfectly consistent with the Chinese saying, “When the wise man points to the stars, the fool looks at the finger”.
The meaning of S1 is S2. Meaning is defined here as the final cause of the speech act. The Awl theory thus updates a terminology that refers to the conclusion of a syllogism as its intention. This reflects the fact that a reformulation connector such as « that is to say » can introduce a conclusion:
L1: — This restaurant is expensive.
L2: — That means / you mean / in other words/ you do not want us to go there?
The Awl theory has developed in three main directions, argumentative expressions, or orienting words; connectives as argumentative indicators; and the concept of semantic topos.
4. Some consequences
4.1 Reason in discourse
Tarski claims that it is not possible to develop a coherent concept of truth within ordinary language, see probably. In Ducrot’s vision of argumentation, the question of the validity of an argument is reinterpreted as grammatical validity. An argumentation is valid if the conclusion is grammatically consistent with its argument (if it obeys the constraints imposed by the argument).
It follows that the rationality and reasonableness associated with the argumentative derivation is no more than an insubstantial reflection of a routine discursive concatenation of meanings, or, as Ducrot says, a mere “illusion”, see demonstration. This is consistent with the structuralist project of reducing the order of discourse to that of language (Saussurian langue). Ordinary discourse is seen as incapable to expressing truth and reality. It follows that discourse is denied any rational or reasonable capacity.
4.2 A re-definition of homonymy and synonymy
Since the theory is based exclusively on the concept of orientation, and not on quantitative data or measures, it follows that if the same segment S is followed in a first occurrence of the segment Sa and in a second occurrence of the segment Sb which contradicts Sa, then S does not have the same meaning in these two occurrences. Since we can say “it’s hot (S), let’s stay at home (Sa)” as well as “it’s hot (S), let’s go for a walk (Sb)” we have to admit that the two occurrences of the statement S “[are] not about the same heat in both cases” (Ducrot 1988, p. 55). This is a new definition of homonymy.
By analogous considerations, Anscombre concludes that there are two verbs to buy, corresponding to the senses of “the more expensive, the more I buy” and “the less expensive, the more I buy” (Anscombre 1995, p. 45).
Conversely, we can assume an equivalence between statements that select the same conclusion: if the same segment S is preceded, in a first occurrence by the segment Sa, and in a second occurrence by another segment Sb, then Sa and Sb have the same meaning, because they serve the same intention: “it’s hot (Sa), I’ll stay at home (S)” vs. “I have work (Sb), I’ll stay at home (S)”. This is a new definition of synonymy, with respect to the same conclusion.
Finally, “if segment S1 only makes sense in the context of segment S2, then the sequence S1 + S2 constitutes a single utterance”, a single linguistic unit (Ducrot 1988: 51). One could probably go a step further, and consider that they form a single sign, with S1 becoming a kind of signifier of S2. This conclusion reduces the proper “order of discourse” back to that of the utterance, even of the sign.
5. Orientation and inferential license
Ducrot contrasts his “semantic” point of view with he calls the “traditional or naive” view of argumentation (Ducrot 1988, pp. 72-76), without referring to specific authors. Let’s consider Toulmin’s layout of argument.
— Argumentation is basically a pair of statements (S1, S2), that have the status of argument and of conclusion respectively.
— Each of these statements has an autonomous meaning, and refers to a distinct specific fact, each of these facts being independently evaluable.
— There is a relation of implication, a physical or social extra-linguistic law between these two facts (Ducrot 1988, p. 75).
This concept of argumentation can be schematized as follows. Curved arrows, going from the discourse level to the reality level, enact the referring process.
This conception may be “naive” in that it assumes that language is a transparent and inert medium, a pure mirror of reality. This is not the case for natural language (Récanati 1979); such conditions are met only by controlled languages such as the languages of the sciences, in relation to realities that they construct as much as they refer to them.
Contrary to this view, the Awl theory emphasizes the strength of purely linguistic constraints. The orientation of a statement is precisely its ability to project its meaning not only onto, but also as the following statement, so that what appears to be “the conclusion” is merely a reformulation of the “argument”. For the Awl theory, discourse is an arguing machine, that systematically commits the vicious circle fallacy.
In sum, the AwL theory opposes ancient or neoclassical theories and practices of argumentation, as a semantic theory of language opposes theories and techniques of conscious discursive planning, that operate according to referential data and principles. For classical theories, argumentative discourse is likely to be evaluated and declared valid or fallacious. For semantic theory, an argumentation can only be evaluated at the grammatical level, as a concatenation (E1, E2) that is acceptable or not, coherent or not. In this theory, the persuasiveness of an argument is entirely a matter of language. It is no different from the coherence of discourse. To reject an argument is to break the thread of the ideal discourse. This position redefines the notion of argumentation; Anscombre thus speaks of argumentation “in our sense” (1995b, p.16).
6. Natural reasoning combines semantic inference with cognitive inferences
The transition from argument to conclusion can be based on a natural or social law or on a semantic coupling of the argument and conclusion. These two kinds of inferences are currently intertwined in ordinary discourse:
You speak about the birth of the gods (1). You then say that at one time the gods did not exist; so you deny the existence of the gods (2), which is a blasphemy and punishable by law. So you will be punished (3) a pari, according to the law that punishes those who speak of the death of the gods.
First, a semantic law deduces (2) from (1), see inference; second, a social law, which is not primarily concerned with linguistic data, but with social data, proceeds on from (2) to (3), the punishment being finally determined by an a pari adjustment. Social law can be naturalized by somehow integrating the meaning of the words:
You are an impious man, impiety is punished with death, so you must die.
It is difficult to tell to what extent the very meaning of the word impious has integrated the law “impiety is punished with death”. Nonetheless, the link with social reality is clear: if I want to reform the law, I’m not engaged in a a semantic reform. see definition; layout.