Argumentations that
ESTABLISH vs. EXPLOIT a RELATIONSHIP

Analogy, authority, causality and definition are basic argumentative resources. They can be found in Cicero’s typologies (1st century BC, see collections from Aristotle to Boethius), as well as in Janik, Rieke and Toulmin’s nine “forms of reasoning” (1984), see collections: contemporary Innovations and structurations.

The arguments associated with these four sources fall into two main categories:

(1) Arguments that establish (construct, justify) the claim that:

• • There is a causal connection between two facts
  • There is an analogy between two beings or two organizations of reality
    see categorization; intra-categorical analogy; structural analogy.
  • Such a source is authoritative: see authority, §7.3
  • Such a definition correctly defines such a word, or such a concept.

(2) Arguments that exploit a pre-established (assumed, known) relationship

• • A causal connection
    See cause-to-effect arg.;  arg. from consequence and effect; pragmatic arg.
  • An analogical relationship
    Seen  categorization; intra-categorical analogy; structural analogy.
  • An authoritative source
    See authority, §6 – 67
  • A definition
    See definition3: arguments based on a definition

Arguments of this second type arguments can be refuted on the grounds that the underlying claim of type (1) is incorrect.

Arguments “based on / establishing the structure of reality”: a re-interpretation

According to the above distinction, type (1) arguments establish the structure of reality Type (2) arguments are based on the corresponding local structuration of reality.

The interpretation to this distinction is different from the one found in the Treatise between “Argument based on the structure of reality”  ([1958], §60-77) and “Relations establishing the structure of reality” ([1958], §78-88), see Collections (4).
According to Perelman & Olbrechts-Tyteca,

— Causal arguments and authority are “based on the structure of reality”.
— Analogy is a relation that “establish the structure of reality”.
— Definition is a “quasi-logical” relation.