FIGURE
The term figure is used with different meanings in syllogistics, in fallacy theory and in rhetoric.
1. Figures of the Syllogism
The figures of syllogism correspond to the different forms of the syllogism, depending on the position of the middle term in the premises.
2. The “Figure of Speech” Fallacy
The fallacy of a misleading expression is sometimes called the fallacy of the figure of speech.
3. Figures of Rhetoric
Figures of rhetoric are variations in the manner of expression that give discourse « more grace and vivacity, luster and energy” (Littré, Figure). Dictionaries of rhetoric contain entries relevant to the field of argumentation. For example, the Gradus dictionary, devoted to the literary processes (Dupriez, 1984), contains entries such as argument, argumentation, deduction, enthymeme, epicheirema, example, induction, refutation, paralogism, premise, reasoning, sophism, etc..These basic concepts belong to the fields of argumentation studies and literary studies, among others.
The term figure encompasses tropes and figures of speech. Metaphor, irony metonymy and synecdoche are considered the “four master tropes.” As a kind of analogy and model, the metaphor has a clear argumentative function. The mechanisms of metonymy and synecdoche correspond to those that justify the transition from an argument to a conclusion. Moreover, irony draws on a self-evident situation.
The term figure of speech can actually refer to any significant and recurring form of discursive organization. Thus, the enthymeme can be considered as a figure, the enthymemism, as can refutation and prolepsis. Other figures of rhetoric, ranging from antanaclasis (see orientation) to analogy and interpretation correspond to well-identified argument schemes.
Other figures play a role in constructing argumentative structures. For example, a figure of syntactic disposition, such as parallelism, can organize an analogy or antithesis.
Figures of opposition are all directly interpretable as argumentative, because they correspond to different modes of « discourse versus counter-discourse » confrontation.
Without reducing each and every figure to an argumentative feature, one can be observe that the classical definition of argumentation is based on the idea that it is an attempt to gain acceptance of a discourse (conclusion) based on good reasons (argument). A clear sign of acceptance is when the proposed discourse is resumed, repeated, and developed, especially as fragments or slogans. Things that are repeated must be first memorized, therefore figures of sound and rhetorical puns which are used in catchphrases, can legitimately be considered features of argumentation.